1. -低渗性缺水Hypotonic dehydration---
    Losing more natrium than water at the same time, resulting in ECF deficit and hyponatremia.
  2. -等渗性缺水isotonic dehydration---
    Losing natrium and water proportionally, the serum natrium level is normal, osmotic pressure of ECF can remain normal.
  3. =低血钾的病因和诊断----
    (1)Cause:
    ①parenteral nutrition with inadequate potassium replacement,
    ②movement of potassium into cells:acidosis,injection of glucose and insulin
    ③prolonged administration of potassium-free parenteral fluids with continued obligatory renal loss of potassium
    ④excessive renal excretion (1g/500ml):use of diuretic drug
    ⑤loss of gastrointestinal secretions.
    (2)诊断:血钾低于3.5mmol/L表示有低钾血症。
    常见原因有:
    ①长期进食不足;
    ②补液病人长期接受不含钾盐的液体,或静脉营养液中钾盐补充不足;
    ③应用呋塞米等利尿剂,肾小管性酸中毒,急性肾衰竭多尿期,醛固酮过多,使钾从肾排出过多。
    ④呕吐、持续胃肠减压、肠瘘等,钾从肾外途径丧失;
    ⑤钾向组织内转移,见于大量输注葡萄糖和胰岛素,或代谢性、呼吸性酸中毒。
  4. -高钾血症的原因和处理原则----
    (1)Cause:
    ①over intake of potassium
    ②severe injury or surgical stress
    ③Acidosis
    ④the catabolic state.
    ⑤oliguric or anuric renal failure;
    (2)Treatment:
    ①intravenous administration of 1 gm. of 10% calcium gluconate under ECG monitoring;
    ②administration of bicarbonate and glucose with insulin (1µ/4gG);
    ③Rapid alkalinization of the ECF with either sodium lactate or bicarbonate promotes transfer of potassium into cells;
    ④definitive removal of excess potassium by cation-exchange resins, peritoneal dialysis, or hemodialysis.
    高钾血症有导致病人心脏停搏的危险,一经诊断,应积极治疗,首先应立即停用一切含钾的药物或溶液。并采取以下措施以降低血钾浓度:
    ①促使K+转入细胞内:输注碳酸氢钠溶液;输注葡萄糖溶液及胰岛素;
    ②阳离子交换树脂的应用;
    ③透析疗法
  5. 外科补钾注意事项----
    ①No more than 40 mmol should be added to 1 liter of intravenous fluid;
    ②The rate of administration should not exceed 20 mmol/ hour unless the ECG is being monitored.③Administration of potassium is about 3-6 g /day;
    ④补钾应在尿量大于40ml/h后进行。(休克未纠正时先纠正休克再补钾);
    ⑤复查血钾浓度,注意酸中毒的影响。
  6. -水中毒water intoxication的定义、病因和临床表现---
    (1)定义:水中毒又称稀释性低血钠,系指机体的摄入水总量超过了排出水量,以致水分在体内潴留,引起血浆渗透压下降和循环血量增多。
    (2)病因:
    ①各种原因致抗利尿激素分泌过多;
    ②肾功不全,排尿能力下降;
    ③机体摄入水分过多或接受过多的静脉补液。
    (3)临床表现:
    ①急性水中毒发病急骤,水过多致脑细胞肿胀可造成颅内压增高,引起一系列神经、精神症状,如头痛、嗜睡、躁动、精神紊乱、定向力障碍、谵妄,甚至昏迷。
    ②慢性水中毒症状往往被原发病症状掩盖。可有软弱无力、恶心、呕吐、嗜睡等。体重明显减轻,皮肤苍白而湿润。

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